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b3de1a673c1eb2876585405395a10c3d | The Colossus of Rhodes (Ancient Greek: ὁ Κολοσσὸς Ῥόδιος, romanized: ho Kolossòs Rhódios Greek: Κολοσσός της Ρόδου, romanized: Kolossós tes Rhódou)[a] was a statue of the Greek sun-god Helios, erected in the city of Rhodes, on the Greek island of the same name, by Chares of Lindos in 280 BC. One of the Seven Wonders of... | text | {
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5dcd01886fcb24322578ceb49c96cc3e | [6]
In 653, an Arab force under Muslim general Muawiyah I conquered Rhodes, and according to the Chronicle of Theophanes the Confessor,[7] the statue was completely destroyed and the remains sold;[8] this account may be unreliable.[9]
Since 2008, a series of as-yet-unrealized proposals to build a new Colossus at Rhodes... | text | {
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3a9492e8764035b8d9d78c3c03a9f029 | Construction[edit]
Timeline and map of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, including the Colossus of Rhodes
Construction began in 292 BC. Ancient accounts, which differ to some degree, describe the structure as being built with iron tie bars to which brass plates were fixed to form the skin. The interior of the str... | text | {
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db3c858d5727a1cfb8dc21ef5240e15f | Philo of Byzantium wrote in De septem mundi miraculis that Chares created the sculpture in situ by casting it in horizontal courses and then placing "...a huge mound of earth around each section as soon as it was completed, thus burying the finished work under the accumulated earth, and carrying out the casting of the ... | text | {
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3cb7e329c67351c102ad7c57dc36164e | The lower plates were 25 millimetres (1 in) in thickness to the knee and .mw-parser-output .frac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .frac .num,.mw-parser-output .frac .den{font-size:80%;line-height:0;vertical-align:super}.mw-parser-output .frac .den{vertical-align:sub}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0... | text | {
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c76a006971a54e0019e37d2e1dab535b | To you, O Sun, the people of Dorian Rhodes set up this bronze statue reaching to Olympus, when they had pacified the waves of war and crowned their city with the spoils taken from the enemy. Not only over the seas but also on land did they kindle the lovely torch of freedom and independence. For to the descendants of H... | text | {
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e270fcf20e53a23c63bd826d21d0e513 | The remains were described briefly by Strabo (64 or 63 BC – c. 24 AD), in his work Geography (Book XIV, Chapter 2.5). Strabo was a Greek geographer, philosopher, and historian who lived in Asia Minor during the transitional period of the Roman Republic into the Roman Empire.
Strabo is best known for his work Geographic... | text | {
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615673e6a38b1d86d0ab42307b295847 | It is remarkable also for its good order, and for its careful attention to the administration of affairs of state in general; and in particular to that of naval affairs, whereby it held the mastery of the sea for a long time and overthrew the business of piracy, and became a friend to the Romans and to all kings who fa... | text | {
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913d4005e309648b638c4882a9e56f48 | [21]
Pliny the Elder (AD 23/24 – 79) was a Roman author, a naturalist and natural philosopher, a naval and army commander of the early Roman Empire, and a friend of emperor Vespasian. Pliny wrote the encyclopedic Naturalis Historia (Natural History), which became an editorial model for encyclopedias. The Naturalis Hist... | text | {
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7fc4286d8230b0749b219291c51a1426 | Within it, too, are to be seen large masses of rock, by the weight of which the artist steadied it while erecting it.[22][23]
Destruction of the remains[edit]
The ultimate fate of the remains of the statue is uncertain. Rhodes has two serious earthquakes per century, owing to its location on the seismically unstable He... | text | {
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45a6615033f307e6c765d8629dfaadf3 | In 653, an Arab force under Muslim general Muawiyah I raided Rhodes, and according to the Chronicle of Theophanes the Confessor,[7] the remains of the statue constituted part of the booty, being melted down and sold to a Jewish merchant of Edessa who loaded the bronze onto 900 camels.[8] The same story is recorded by B... | text | {
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4085cfdc914e7cd974a37ea0131975d | [28]
Given the likely previous neglect of the remains and various opportunities for authorities to have repurposed the metal, as well as the fact that, Islamic incursions notwithstanding, the island remained an important Byzantine strategic point well into the ninth century, an Arabic raid is unlikely to have found muc... | text | {
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dcc268102cc4ed3f4885b28dfe6b252a | References to this conception are also found in literary works. William Shakespeare's Cassius in Julius Caesar (I, ii, 136–38) says of Caesar:
Why man, he doth bestride the narrow world
Like a Colossus, and we petty men
Walk under his huge legs and peep about
To find ourselves dishonourable graves
Shakespeare alludes... | text | {
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43750d5e5bd4acef4051c6c0dcee661 | Also, the fallen statue would have blocked the harbour, and since the ancient Rhodians did not have the ability to remove the fallen statue from the harbour, it would not have remained visible on land for the next 800 years, as discussed above. Even neglecting these objections, the statue was made of bronze, and engine... | text | {
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"_split_id": 13
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4839aced58837e824cd75feb7836a2d9 | Silver tetradrachm of Rhodes showing Helios and a rose (205–190 BC, 13.48 g)
While scholars do not know what the statue looked like, they do have a good idea of what the head and face looked like, as it was of a standard rendering at the time. The head would have had curly hair with evenly spaced spikes of bronze or si... | text | {
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4b2556c3011f6157d9442caf243ad375 | Curved blocks of marble that were incorporated into the Fortress structure, but are considered too intricately cut to have been quarried for that purpose, have been posited as the remnants of a marble base for the Colossus, which would have stood on the sandstone block foundation.[29]
Stone foundation and partially-re... | text | {
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2d2b1dde2c280253b2d43667fa72904c | It would cost up to €200 million.[32]
In December 2015, a group of European architects announced plans to build a modern Colossus bestriding two piers at the harbour entrance, despite a preponderance of evidence and scholarly opinion that the original monument could not have stood there.[10][11] The new statue, 150 met... | text | {
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"_split_id": 16
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23a6aecedbba869842ea1b1bf188493f | The Statue of Zeus at Olympia was a giant seated figure, about 12.4 m (41 ft) tall,[1] made by the Greek sculptor Phidias around 435 BC at the sanctuary of Olympia, Greece, and erected in the Temple of Zeus there. Zeus is the sky and thunder god in ancient Greek religion, who rules as king of the gods of Mount Olympus... | text | {
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55e0b694bf62def1202894994fbb40a | Seeking to outdo their Athenian rivals, the Eleans employed sculptor Phidias, who had previously made the massive statue of Athena Parthenos in the Parthenon.[2]
The statue occupied half the width of the aisle of the temple built to house it. The geographer Strabo noted early in the 1st century BC that the statue gave ... | text | {
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2ac14ad06b5b8d7573e29d4de0c1bcd4 | [5] Zeus' golden sandals rested upon a footstool decorated with an Amazonomachy in relief. The passage underneath the throne was restricted by painted screens.[6]
Pausanias also recounts that the statue was kept constantly coated with olive oil to counter the harmful effect on the ivory caused by the "marshiness" of th... | text | {
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72375f4d511ffaf6631bff74f2e313a0 | [10]
Statue of Jupiter (Hermitage), marble and bronze (restored), following the type established by Phidias (Hermitage Museum, Saint Petersburg)
According to a legend, when Phidias was asked what inspired him—whether he climbed Mount Olympus to see Zeus, or whether Zeus came down from Olympus so that Phidias could see... | text | {
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75f69eded19c631bb037a8d63183b001 | [13][14]
According to Pausanias, "when the image was quite finished Pheidias prayed the god to show by a sign whether the work was to his liking. Immediately, runs the legend, a thunderbolt fell on that part of the floor where down to the present day the bronze jar stood to cover the place."[7]
Loss and destruction[ed... | text | {
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a9446bc1d0a6f5d1e7ef299ef02b0781 | The 11th-century Byzantine historian Georgios Kedrenos records a tradition that it was carried off to Constantinople, where it was destroyed in the great fire of the Palace of Lausus, in 475 AD.
Alternatively, the statue perished along with the temple, which was severely damaged by fire in 425 AD.[17] But earlier loss ... | text | {
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de1e8a6683c5975ce9b48fd812cb3e3b | Most of the latter were used to create glass plaques, and to form the statue's robe from sheets of glass, naturalistically draped and folded, then gilded. A cup inscribed "ΦΕΙΔΙΟΥ ΕΙΜΙ" or "I belong to Phidias" was found at the site.[20] However, the inscription is widely considered to be a forgery. [21] | text | {
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a07ecec555a27814e5cd0139c96a4d52 | The Great Pyramid of Giza[a] is the largest Egyptian pyramid and the tomb of Fourth Dynasty pharaoh Khufu. Built in the early 26th century BC during a period of around 27 years,[3] the pyramid is the oldest of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, and the only one to remain largely intact. It is the most famous monum... | text | {
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cdf423c83372c05d05348413a37b9643 | [5]
The dimensions of the pyramid were 280 royal cubits (146.7 m; 481.4 ft) high, a base length of 440 cubits (230.6 m; 756.4 ft), with a seked of 5+1/2 palms (a slope of 51°50'40").
The Great Pyramid was built by quarrying an estimated 2.3 million large blocks weighing 6 million tonnes in total. The majority of stones... | text | {
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7943c6824bdf08ddad847a3511ce6c8e | The funerary complex around the pyramid consisted of two mortuary temples connected by a causeway (one close to the pyramid and one near the Nile), tombs for the immediate family and court of Khufu, including three smaller pyramids for Khufu's wives, an even smaller "satellite pyramid" and five buried solar barges (boa... | text | {
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e0070ce4972181b85681e0d4666e779f | : “The gang, The white crown of Khnum-Khufu is powerful”). The names of Khufu were spelled out on the walls over a dozen times. Another of these graffiti was found by Goyon on an exterior block of the 4th layer of the pyramid.[11] The inscriptions are comparable to those found at other sites of Khufu, such as the alaba... | text | {
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902feb4b0ba638b72dd44306d61af477 | The earliest pharaonic name of seal impressions is that of Khufu, the latest of Pepi II. Worker graffiti was written on some of the stones of the tombs as well; for instance, "Mddw" (Horus name of Khufu) on the mastaba of Chufunacht, probably a grandson of Khufu.[15]
Some inscriptions in the chapels of the mastabas (li... | text | {
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91a9aa1371046fc0ec61c8d80efc0f54 | It reads: "He yoked the horses in Memphis, when he was still young, and stopped at the Sanctuary of Hor-em-akhet (the Sphinx). He spent a time there in going round it, looking at the beauty of the Sanctuary of Khufu and Khafra the revered."[20]
In 1954 two boat pits, one containing the Khufu ship, were discovered burie... | text | {
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4221888d87f2cd2bdb842a3b21d0b4c7 | It documents the transportation of white limestone blocks from Tura to the Great Pyramid, which is mentioned by its original name Akhet Khufu (with a pyramid determinative) dozens of times. It details that the stones were accepted at She Akhet-Khufu ("the pool of the pyramid Horizon of Khufu") and Ro-She Khufu (“the en... | text | {
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4b3a94e561cc95abaab5e5732a78b0cc | (2010)[36]
2613–2577 BC
The Great Pyramid has been determined to be about 4600 years old by two principal approaches: indirectly, through its attribution to Khufu and his chronological age, based on archaeological and textual evidence; and directly, via radiocarbon dating of organic material found in the pyramid and ... | text | {
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45b4381e1b83a61264d5222c77592cc1 | The majority of recent chronological estimates date Khufu and his pyramid roughly between 2700 and 2500 BC.[37]
Radiocarbon dating
Mortar was used generously in the Great Pyramid's construction. In the mixing process ashes from fires were added to the mortar, organic material that could be extracted and radiocarbon da... | text | {
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3101f08dff9b71bff6c7648520d5943c | After inheritance it was donated to the Museum of Aberdeen in 1946, however it had broken into pieces and was filed incorrectly. Lost in the vast museum collection, it was only rediscovered in 2020, when it was radiocarbon dated to 3341–3094 BC. Being over 500 years older than Khufu's chronological age, Abeer Eladany s... | text | {
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695f2fc0334675531263c281c5d00f56 | Because of the aforementioned differences in spelling, he didn't recognize Khufu on Manetho's king list (as transcribed by Africanus and Eusebius),[43] hence he relied on Herodotus' incorrect account. Summating the duration of lines of succession, Greaves concluded the year 1266 BC to be the beginning of Khufu's reign.... | text | {
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53a7bfa2a90faef008e2bdf5ba274cf8 | It is, however, still not a fully appreciated method due to larger margins or error, calibration uncertainties and the problem of inbuilt age (time between growth and final usage) in plant material, including wood.[37] Furthermore, astronomical alignments have been suggested to coincide with the time of construction.[3... | text | {
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b2ca1b8f6577603e156cb4e19b46b9b0 | Accordingly, his explanations present themselves as a mixture of comprehensible descriptions, personal descriptions, erroneous reports, and fantastical legends; as a result, many of the speculative errors and confusions about the monument can be traced back to Herodotus and his work.[44][45]
Herodotus writes that the G... | text | {
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9895ad7221ac864ae60da8d29472c669 | These were intended to be burial places for Khufu himself and were encompassed with water by a channel brought in from the Nile.[47] Herodotus later states that at the Pyramid of Khafre (located beside the Great Pyramid) the Nile flows through a built passage to an island in which Khufu is buried.[48] Hawass interprets... | text | {
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12df9fac00f94490282fc2fae84cffc1 | Diodorus's work was inspired by historians of the past, but he also distanced himself from Herodotus, who Diodorus claims tells marvelous tales and myths.[53] Diodorus presumably drew his knowledge from the lost work of Hecataeus of Abdera,[54] and like Herodotus, he also places the builder of the pyramid, "Chemmis,"[5... | text | {
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f9564c864279d1d73261342079c53873 | He estimated the number of workers necessary to erect the Great Pyramid at 360,000 and the construction time at 20 years.[55] Similar to Herodotus, Diodorus also claims that the side of the pyramid is inscribed with writing that "[set] forth [the price of] vegetables and purgatives for the workmen there were paid out o... | text | {
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dbf182ab6271f3cd606329769131a822 | The Roman writer Pliny the Elder, writing in the first century AD, argued that the Great Pyramid had been raised, either "to prevent the lower classes from remaining unoccupied", or as a measure to prevent the pharaoh's riches from falling into the hands of his rivals or successors.[60] Pliny does not speculate as to t... | text | {
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a9f5de86e2b3ff517875eb4e469c1457 | Further, he describes a method discovered by Thales of Miletus for ascertaining the pyramid's height by measuring its shadow.[61]
Late antiquity and the Middle Ages
Further information: Joseph's Granaries
During late antiquity, a misinterpretation of the pyramids as "Joseph's granary" began to gain in popularity. The ... | text | {
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78b73e529e487a2bbc9e8d368874a3e4 | In 530 AD, Stephanos of Byzantium added more to this idea when he wrote in his Ethnica that the word "pyramid" was connected to the Greek word πυρός (puros), meaning wheat.[66]
The Abbasid Caliph Al-Ma'mun (786–833 CE) is said to have tunneled into the side of the Great Pyramid.
In the seventh century AD, the Rashidun... | text | {
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84739ccbfa87f77a41ecf800ed5fb189 | [68]
The most notable account of this legend was given by Al-Masudi (896–956) in his Akbar al-zaman, alongside imaginative tales about the pyramid, such as the story of a man who fell three hours down the pyramid's well and the tale of an expedition that discovered bizarre finds in the structure's inner chambers. Al-za... | text | {
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ced97ea0de93e8e875caca103a26bd53 | Inside the vessel was "something like pitch," and when the explorer reached into the vessel "a gold receptacle happened to be inside."The receptacle, when taken from the vessel, was filled with "fresh blood," which quickly dried up. Ibn al-Nadim's work also claims that the bodies of a man and woman were discovered insi... | text | {
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25be35473f41ef1b67e9ae8dab892f97 | In addition to measuring the structure, alongside the other pyramids at Giza, al-Baghdadi also writes that the structures were surely tombs, although he thought the Great Pyramid was used for the burial of Agathodaimon or Hermes. Al-Baghdadi ponders whether the pyramid pre-dated the Great flood as described in Genesis,... | text | {
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e320c5a2163152b1169aa16167ce6d1e | [79] The bedrock reaches a height of almost 6 metres (20 ft) above the pyramid base at the location of the Grotto.[80]
Along the sides of the base platform a series of holes are cut in the bedrock. Lehner hypothesizes that they held wooden posts used for alignment.[81] Edwards, among others, suggested the usage of wate... | text | {
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7339d41d913edc71acc66067b7c1e1a0 | [85] [86] The white limestone used for the casing was transported by boat across the Nile from the Tura quarries of the Eastern Desert plateau, about 10 km (6.2 mi) to its south east of the Giza plateau. In 2013, rolls of papyrus called the Diary of Merer were discovered, written by a supervisor of the deliveries of li... | text | {
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dad52a1b7f8f82dabe02316df1ce1861 | [89]
Worker graffiti found at Giza suggest haulers were divided into zau (singular za), groups of 40 men, consisting of four sub-units that each had an "Overseer of Ten".[90][3]
As to the question of how over two million blocks could have been cut within Khufu's lifetime, stonemason Franck Burgos conducted an archaeolo... | text | {
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59f75124625fca16deeed7067d3bf079 | [91]
A construction management study conducted in 1999, in association with Mark Lehner and other Egyptologists, had estimated that the total project required an average workforce of about 13,200 people and a peak workforce of roughly 40,000.[92]
Surveys and design
Comparison of approximate profiles of the Great Pyram... | text | {
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18a5fceab52457bc6eed50e0d4d60882 | Petrie measured the lowest layer to be 148 centimetres (4.86 ft) high, whereas the layers towards the summit barely exceed 50 centimetres (1.6 ft).[93]
The accuracy of the pyramid's perimeter is such that the four sides of the base have an average error of only 58 millimetres (2.3 inches) in length[b] and the finished ... | text | {
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7bd28219a5ea42218c5a79b1aa59d222 | [98] Petrie concluded: "but these relations of areas and of circular ratio are so systematic that we should grant that they were in the builder's design".[99] Others have argued that the ancient Egyptians had no concept of pi and would not have thought to encode it in their monuments and that the observed pyramid slope... | text | {
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8d482789d791dbe845ea5d676fd46b6c | Employing a pinhole produced much more accurate results (19 arc seconds off), whereas using an angled block as a shadow definer was less accurate (3′ 47″ off).[102]
The Pole Star Method: The polar star is tracked using a movable sight and fixed plumb line. Halfway between the maximum eastern and western elongations is ... | text | {
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7a8645113852ffca179a9186dd75740a | He writes that "such a working diagram would also serve to generate the architecture of the pyramid with precision unmatched by any other means".[107]
The basalt blocks of the pyramid temple show "clear evidence" of having been cut with some kind of saw with an estimated cutting blade of 15 feet (4.6 m) in length. Rome... | text | {
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ff60179bfa6e8a6f57bcb3015dd131fc | [110][111] Unfinished casing blocks of the pyramids of Menkaure and Henutsen at Giza suggest that the front faces were smoothed only after the stones were laid, with chiseled seams marking correct positioning and where the superfluous rock would have to be trimmed off.[112]
The height of the horizontal layers is not un... | text | {
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78abb50bc7fad90f3d25b78965461d8a | Amidst earthquakes in northern Egypt, workers (perhaps the descendants of those who served Al-Mamun) stripped away many of the outer casing stones,[70] which were said to have been carted away by Bahri Sultan An-Nasir Nasir-ad-Din al-Hasan in 1356 for use in nearby Cairo.[96]
Many more casing stones were removed from t... | text | {
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e278476c6d2a8ebd893d1bb47fb13649 | [118][119]
It has been suggested that some or all of the casing stones were cast in place, rather than quarried and moved, yet archaeological evidence and petrographic analysis indicate this was not the case.[120]
Petrie noted in 1880 that the sides of the pyramid, as we see them today, are "very distinctly hollowed" a... | text | {
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62221feac92f64fe59f37d63895d3f81 | All known 4th dynasty pyramidia (of the Red Pyramid, Satellite Pyramid of Khufu (G1-d) and Queen's Pyramid of Menkaure (G3-a)) are of white limestone and were not gilded.[125] Only from the 5th dynasty onward is there evidence of gilded capstones; for instance, a scene on the causeway of the Sahure speaks of the "white... | text | {
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1716b3862205df191ecc5ec55b7eb5e1 | 1. Original entrance, North Face Corridor 2. Robbers' Tunnel (tourist entrance) 3, 4. Descending Passage 5. Subterranean Chamber 6. Ascending Passage 7. Queen's Chamber & its "air-shafts" 8. Horizontal Passage 9. Grand Gallery 10. King's Chamber & its "air-shafts" 11. Grotto & Well Shaft The internal ... | text | {
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7ec963e43822b439448dd9d60cc0acd2 | Before the removal of the casing in the middle ages, the pyramid was entered through a hole in the 19th layer of masonry, approximately 17 metres (56 ft) above the pyramid's base level. The height of that layer – 96 centimetres (3.15 ft) – corresponds to the size of the entrance tunnel which is commonly called the Desc... | text | {
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4f934d3097d8f35fecc38e4dfcec6d1a | [130]
North Face Corridor
In 2016 the ScanPyramids team detected a cavity behind the entrance chevrons using muography, which was confirmed in 2019 to be a corridor at least 5 metres (16 ft) long, and running horizontal or sloping upwards (thus not parallel to the Descending Passage).[131][132]
In February 2023 the No... | text | {
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1eca3924fa7c2f46d01063740b1704a9 | [135]
The origin of this Robbers' Tunnel is the subject of much scholarly discussion. According to tradition the opening was made around 820 AD by Caliph al-Ma'mun's workmen with a battering ram. The digging dislodged the stone in the ceiling of the Descending Passage which hid the entrance to the Ascending Passage, an... | text | {
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80a373d2330718d6d32f14b8a45a9adf | This theory is furthered by the report of patriarch Dionysius I Telmaharoyo, who claimed that before al-Ma'mun's expedition, there already existed a breach in the pyramid's north face that extended into the structure 33 metres (108 ft) before hitting a dead end. This suggests that some sort of robber's tunnel predated ... | text | {
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1bcef93eed7e89b94ed76778c4109249 | The passage continues to descend for another 72 metres (236 ft), now through bedrock instead of the pyramid superstructure. Lazy guides used to block off this part with rubble to avoid having to lead people down and back up the long shaft, until around 1902 when Covington installed a padlocked iron grill-door to stop t... | text | {
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d39e520e61763c9574dd587ad29d0e08 | Located about 27 m (89 ft) below base level,[80] it measures roughly 16 cubits (8.4 m; 27.5 ft) north-south by 27 cubits (14.1 m; 46.4 ft) east-west, with an approximate height of 4 m (13 ft).
The western half of the room, apart from the ceiling, is unfinished, with trenches left behind by the quarry-men running east t... | text | {
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571b2b0fc219e0a486be3f7cf473204a | The uppermost part may have ancient origins, about 2 m (6.6 ft) squared in width and 1.5 m (4.9 ft) in depth, diagonally aligned with the chamber. Caviglia and Salt enlarged it to the depth of about 3 m (9.8 ft).[144] In 1837 Vyse directed the shaft to be sunk to a depth of 50 ft (15 m), in hopes of discovering the cha... | text | {
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9d474031dd97d5e3ccb40179b2c9787d | Ludwig Borchardt suggested that the Subterranean Chamber was originally planned to be the burial place for pharaoh Khufu, but that it was abandoned during construction in favour of a chamber higher up in the pyramid.[148]
Ascending Passage
The upper two granite plugs in the Ascending Passage, seen from the end of the ... | text | {
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af512709954d8103ea22222ac67fb12d | Most of the joints between the blocks of the walls run perpendicular to the floor, with two exceptions. Firstly, those in the lower third of the corridor are vertical. Secondly, the three girdle stones that are inserted near the middle (about 10 cubits apart) presumably stabilize the tunnel.[150]
Well Shaft and Grotto... | text | {
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5a2dca8dbc5a359a81246372ef81e412 | The lower half of the Well Shaft goes through the bedrock at an angle of about 45° for 26.5 metres (87 ft) before a steeper section, 9.5 metres (31 ft) long, leads to its lowest point. The final section of 2.6 metres (8.5 ft) connects it to the Descending Passage, running almost horizontally. The builders evidently had... | text | {
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9fd93b2f24d1ce5a6a1f9daba6f103a2 | The passage is 2 cubits (1.0 m; 3.4 ft) wide and 1.17 m (3.8 ft) high for most of its length, but near the chamber there is a step in the floor, after which the passage increases to 1.68 m (5.5 ft) high.[80] Half of the west-wall consists of two layers that have atypically continuous vertical joints. Dormion suggests t... | text | {
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49e0ef03a61c11c6398b94b50a0f643e | The shafts were not connected to the outer faces of the pyramid or the Queen's Chamber; their purpose is unknown. In one shaft Dixon discovered a ball of diorite, a bronze hook of unknown purpose and a piece of cedar wood. The first two objects are now in the British Museum.[155] The latter was lost until recently when... | text | {
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5c9842a0cbda1108e978378f31764a9d | [158] The northern passage, which was difficult to navigate because of its twists and turns, was also found to be blocked by a slab.[159]
Research continued in 2011 with the Djedi Project which used a fibre-optic "micro snake camera" that could see around corners. With this, they were able to penetrate the first door o... | text | {
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a92947b9bf546ad97929878b97724597 | [161]
Grand Gallery
Grand Gallery (with modern walkway up the middle)
The Grand Gallery continues the slope of the Ascending Passage towards the King's Chamber, extending from the 23rd to the 48th course (of stones), a rise of 21 metres (69 ft). It has been praised as a "truly spectacular example of stonemasonry".[162... | text | {
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d540539c645612088f5d44b9cb81a655 | [163]
At the upper end of the Gallery, on the eastern wall, is a hole near the roof that opens into a short tunnel by which access can be gained to the lowest of the Relieving Chambers.
The floor of the Grand Gallery has a shelf or step on either side, 1 cubit (52.4 cm; 20.6 in) wide, leaving a lower ramp 2 cubits (1.0... | text | {
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db7c790c09260ed82695d485dc08f842 | At the top of the gallery, there is a step onto a small horizontal platform where a tunnel leads through the Antechamber, once blocked by portcullis stones, into the King's Chamber.
The Big Void
In 2017, scientists from the ScanPyramids project discovered a large cavity above the Grand Gallery using muon radiography, ... | text | {
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b38279ce98fad440457eeafd717e5522 | [171]
To verify and pinpoint the void, a team from Kyushu University, Tohoku University, the University of Tokyo and the Chiba Institute of Technology planned to rescan the structure with a newly developed muon detector in 2020.[172] Their work was delayed by the COVID-19 pandemic.[173]
Antechamber
A diagram of the An... | text | {
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b7fa8996aad119660e5d540058980773 | The Antechamber has a design flaw: the space above them can be accessed, thus all but the last block can be circumvented. This was exploited by looters who punched a hole through the ceiling of the tunnel behind, gaining access to the King's Chamber. Later on, all three portcullis stones were broken and removed. Fragme... | text | {
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15faacf3dc8059bd09dac02d126dc262 | [175] The stones are precisely fitted together. The facing surfaces are dressed to varying degrees, with some displaying remains of bosses not entirely cut away.[174] The back sides of the blocks were only roughly hewn to shape, as was usual with Egyptian hard-stone facade blocks, presumably to save work.[176][80]
Sar... | text | {
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6e481759cbb72619250600e06f8ce151 | The sarcophagus is too large to fit around the corner between the Ascending and Descending Passages, which indicates that it must have been placed in the chamber before the roof was put in place.[180]
Air shafts
In the north and south walls of the King's Chamber are two narrow shafts, commonly known as "air shafts". T... | text | {
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c9b5e6068bd3b5195553db6c59db6947 | If they originally penetrated the outer casing is unknown.
The purpose of these shafts is not clear: They were long believed by Egyptologists to be shafts for ventilation, but this idea has now been widely abandoned in favour of the shafts serving a ritualistic purpose associated with the ascension of the king's spirit... | text | {
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479827d3e7649bd90ad4b8d793a01c48 | They were presumably intended to safeguard the King's Chamber from the possibility of the roof collapsing under the weight of stone above; hence they are referred to as "Relieving Chambers".
The granite blocks that divide the chambers have flat bottom sides but roughly shaped top sides, giving all five chambers an irre... | text | {
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dd79e8d749adfd389d2d2e3aa7b90a2 | Numerous graffiti of red ochre paint were found covering the limestone walls of all four newly discovered chambers. Apart from leveling lines and indication marks for masons, multiple hieroglyphic inscriptions spell out the names of work-gangs. Those names, which were also found in other Egyptian pyramids like that of ... | text | {
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81fe4b7621201dfde1faf6e1e8d73565 | Pyramid complex
See also: Giza pyramid complex
The Great Pyramid is surrounded by a complex of several buildings, including small pyramids.
Temples and causeway
Remains of the basalt floor of the temple at the east foot of the pyramidThe Pyramid Temple, which stood on the east side of the pyramid and measured 52.2 met... | text | {
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100acc824a04f519e6958a6ac7a521b0 | Subsidiary pyramids
On the southern end of the east side are four subsidiary pyramids The three that remain standing to almost full height are popularly known as the Queens' Pyramids (G1-a, G1-b and G1-c). The fourth, smaller satellite pyramid (G1-d), is so ruined that its existence was not suspected until the first co... | text | {
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2c77f9107ae8cdeee9a0a02c27ed963 | These were entrusted to a boat builder, Haj Ahmed Yusuf, who worked out how the pieces fit together. The entire process, including conservation and straightening of the warped wood, took fourteen years. The result is a cedar-wood boat 43.6 metres (143 ft) long, its timbers held together by ropes, which was originally h... | text | {
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23129dff1e1fbefc713770d6193b8c5f | [197][198] In the early 21st century, Lehner and his team made several discoveries, including what appears to have been a thriving port, suggesting the town and associated living quarters, which consisted of barracks called "galleries", may not have been for the pyramid workers after all, but rather for the soldiers an... | text | {
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38c9cc693ec5649ecb0c9427cab4fe93 | [202]
Looting
Authors Bob Brier and Hoyt Hobbs claim that "all the pyramids were robbed" by the New Kingdom, when the construction of royal tombs in the Valley of the Kings began.[203][204] Joyce Tyldesley states that the Great Pyramid itself "is known to have been opened and emptied by the Middle Kingdom", before the... | text | {
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17fcb2168d28816ec8951ff2b1a0a1c3 | [205] Scholars such as Gaston Maspero and Flinders Petrie have noted that evidence for a similar door has been found at the Bent Pyramid of Dashur.[206][207]
Herodotus visited Egypt in the 5th century BC and recounts a story that he was told concerning vaults under the pyramid built on an island where the body of Khufu... | text | {
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298f781035a941bf2765e3504233f158 | The Mausoleum at Halicarnassus or Tomb of Mausolus[a] (Ancient Greek: Μαυσωλεῖον τῆς Ἁλικαρνασσοῦ; Turkish: Halikarnas Mozolesi) was a tomb built between 353 and 350 BC in Halicarnassus (present Bodrum, Turkey) for Mausolus, an Anatolian from Caria and a satrap in the Achaemenid Empire, and his sister-wife Artemisia II... | text | {
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a33a0043225c3290885d897cfe1a2001 | Conquest[edit]
In the 4th century BC, Halicarnassus was the capital of a small regional kingdom of Caria within the Achaemenid Empire on the western coast of Asia Minor.
In 377 BC, the nominal ruler of the region, Hecatomnus of Milas, died and left control of the kingdom to his son, Mausolus. Hecatomnus, a local dynast... | text | {
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4b903e42af864d8a652418a4c65086e8 | Mausolus decided to build a new capital, one as safe from capture as it was magnificent to be seen. He chose the city of Halicarnassus. Artemisia and Mausolus spent huge amounts of tax money to embellish the city. They commissioned statues, temples and buildings of gleaming marble. In 353 BC, Mausolus died, leaving Art... | text | {
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7a1b74025b99fb13a971ee8d164a94d6 | According to the historian Pliny the Elder, the craftsmen decided to stay and finish the work after the death of their patron "considering that it was at once a memorial of his own fame and of the sculptor's art''.[citation needed]
Construction of the Mausoleum[edit]
Reconstitutions of the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus.
... | text | {
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28e0b6ee7e4aa6cf64ac8b593dabc602 | At each corner, stone warriors mounted on horseback guarded the tomb. At the center of the platform, the marble tomb rose as a square tapering block to one-third of the Mausoleum's 45 m (148 ft) height. This section was covered with bas-reliefs showing action scenes, including the battle of the centaurs with the lapith... | text | {
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4f72ffd1fda2d6b2528d24582c459117 | Modern historians have pointed out that two years would not be enough time to decorate and build such a complex and extravagant building. Therefore, it is believed that construction was begun by Mausolus before his death or continued by the next leaders.[9] The Mausoleum of Halicarnassus resembled a temple and the only... | text | {
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997ffdb02b68964714947a61e1c1061 | Because of this, Fergusson concluded that the building was ruined, probably by an earthquake, between this period and 1402, when the Knights of St John of Jerusalem arrived and recorded that it was in ruins.[10] However, Luttrell notes[11] that at that time the local Greeks and Turks had no name for – or legends to acc... | text | {
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81589d0b4de5eef949204a0783600ec6 | [13] At some point before or after this, grave robbers broke into and destroyed the underground burial chamber, but in 1972, there was still enough of it remaining to determine a layout of the chambers when they were excavated.[9]
This monument was ranked the seventh wonder of the world by the ancients, not because of ... | text | {
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60361ba8c311e7f989fe930d44629169 | [16] The vase contains an inscription in Old Persian, Egyptian, Babylonian, and Elamite:[16][17][18]
.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 40px}.mw-parser-output .templatequote .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;padding-left:1.6em;margin-top:0}
𐎧𐏁𐎹𐎠𐎼𐏁𐎠 𐏐 𐏋 �... | text | {
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7e88380a543c541e7984c7621061b3bb | The building was rectangular, not square, surrounded by a colonnade of thirty-six columns. There was a pyramidal superstructure receding in twenty four steps to the summit. On top there were 4 horse chariots of marble. The building was accented with both sculptural friezes and free standing figures. "The free standing ... | text | {
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83c881948ce6e075aad2755b1adfabd1 | The height of the building was 43 metres (140 ft).[22]
The only other author that gives the dimensions of the Mausoleum is Hyginus a grammarian in the time of Augustus. He describes the monument as built with shining stones, 24 metres (80 ft) high and 410 metres (1,340 ft) in circumference. He likely meant cubits which... | text | {
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61dbb08c904a7ca726d53f939756ee0 | [21]
The Mausoleum was adorned with many great and beautiful sculptures. Some of these sculptures have been lost or only fragments have been found. Several of the statues' original placements are only known through historical accounts. The great figures of Mausolus and Artemisia stood in the chariot at the top of the p... | text | {
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"_split_id": 11
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